4. References

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Bailey, H., Senior, B., Simmons, D., Rusin, J., Picken, G., and Thompson, P.M. 2010. “Assessing Underwater Noise Levels during Pile-Driving at an Offshore Windfarm and Its Potential Effects on Marine Mammals.” Marine Pollution Bulletin 60 (6): 888–97.

Dahl, P.H., de Jong, C.A.F., and Popper, A.N. 2015. “The Underwater Sound Field from Impact Pile Driving and Its Potential Effects on Marine Life.” Acoustics Today, 2, 11, 18-25.

De Jong, C.A.F, and Michael A.A. 2008. “Underwater Radiated Noise Due to the Piling for the Q7 Offshore Wind Park.” Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 123 (5): 2987.

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Flynn, K.N., and McCabe, B.A. 2019. “Driven Cast-in-Situ Piles Installed Using Hydraulic Hammers: Installation Energy Transfer and Driveability Assessment.” Soils and Foundations 59 (6): 1946–59.

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[1] There is no defined transition from deep to shallow water applicable for all situations, Acoustically, shallow water conditions exist whenever the propagation is characterised by multiple reflections with both the sea surface and bottom (Etter, 2013). Consequently, the depth at which water can be classified as acoustically deep or shallow depends upon numerous factors including the sound speed gradient, water depth, frequency of the sound and distance between the source and receiver.

[2] The frequency range for the calculation will depend on the frequency characteristics of the source and the required frequency range for the receiver – for example different hearing groups of marine mammals, fish etc.

[3] Many studies only fit a N log R curve and do not include the linear absorption term, which introduces further uncertainty into the fitting and extrapolation of data.

[4] The benefit of using modelling to demonstrate the potential errors caused by extrapolation is that it is possible to quantify the “real” source energy level, as opposed to in field studies where this can only ever be estimated based on the measured data and is subject to potentially widescale uncertainties.