4. Baseline Environment

4.1. Seabed Geology and Topography

  1. The geological processes that form a sequence of seabed deposits provide information to inform an understanding of an area’s submerged prehistoric archaeological potential. This section therefore describes the seabed geological sequence and seabed topography within the marine archaeology study area, as a foundation for the sections which follow. It has been informed by a characterisation of the results of the site-specific geophysical surveys, as described in section 3, and by relevant documentary sources.
  2. The marine archaeology study area lies within the Outer Forth Estuary of the North Sea Basin. Thick sequences of Quaternary deposits have been recorded in this area comprising Holocene Sediments, deposits of the Forth Formation, the Wee Bankie/Marr Bank Formations and the Aberdeen Ground Formation. The Proposed Development array area and Proposed Development export cable corridor are addressed in this section as separate components of the marine archaeology study area ( Figure 4.1   Open ▸ ).

4.1.2. Proposed Development Array Area

  1. Within the Proposed Development array area, Pre-Quaternary bedrock is characterised by Triassic fine grained deposits of the Smith Bank Formation and outcrops of Permian bedrock. The bedrock is overlain by later Quaternary deposits although it is locally exposed. The bedrock has been incised with a series of features interpreted as channels or tunnel valleys infilled by early to middle Quaternary deposits (Fugro, 2020a and 2020b).
  2. The Aberdeen Ground Formation (recorded as Unit E (Fugro, 2019 and 2020a and 2020b; Figure 4.1   Open ▸ ) forms the earliest Quaternary deposit within the Proposed Development array area, it is particularly thick within the western parts of the Proposed Development array area (up to 50 m – 100 m). It forms an infill sediment in the channels or tunnel valleys recorded in the bedrock. Investigations in the region have found the Aberdeen Ground Formation to comprise grey clay with occasional shell and plant remains. Partly lignitised wood remains have also been found within this deposit (Holmes, 1977). The Formation was laid down over a long period during the early to middle Pleistocene and deposited in cold environments in fluvial, glacial or marine environments (BGS, 1994; Fugro, 2019).
  3. The Marr Bank Formation (recorded as Unit D (Fugro, 2019 and 2020a and 2020b; Figure 4.1   Open ▸ ) was identified across the Proposed Development array area, although it is locally absent towards the west. It comprises silty, gravelly sand deposited in a pro-glacial fluvial to deltaic environment potentially representing an outwash plain during the late Devensian. Evidence of palaeo-channel systems are present within the Marr Bank Formation and it also forms infill to channels incised into the Aberdeen Ground Formation. In the west of Unit D, evidence of a moraine has been recorded which resulted from material left behind by ice flowing west/east during the Last Glacial Maximum. Should the deposits represent outwash plain then the moraine could mark the limit of the Devensian glaciation.
  4. The Wee Bankie Formation (recorded as Unit C (Fugro, 2019 and 2020a and 2020b; Figure 4.1   Open ▸ ) is more dominant in the west of the Proposed Development array area though it is present in discontinuous form in the east of the Proposed Development array area. It is a late Devensian deposit comprising gravelly and sandy clay interpreted as terminal moraine or subglacial till. It infills channels incised into the Marr Bank Formation or the Aberdeen Ground Formation. The deposit may be formed of multiple phases of till units which may represent different stages of the Devensian glaciation. Where the Marr Bank Formation meets the Wee Bankie Formation has been interpreted as potentially the interface between the Last Glacial Maximum (to the west) and the sea (to the east).
  5. The Forth Formation/St Abbs Formation (recorded as Unit B (Fugro, 2019 and 2020a and 2020b; Figure 4.1   Open ▸ ) is identified across the west of the Proposed Development array area. The deposit was laid down in glacio-lacustrine to glacio-marine conditions during the late Devensian early Holocene.
  6. Seabed sediments (recorded as Unit A (Fugro, 2019 and 2020a and 2020b; Figure 4.1   Open ▸ ) laid down under marine conditions during the Holocene overlay the Forth Formation across the Proposed Development array area.
  7. The maximum recorded seabed depth is in the centre of the Proposed Development array area where deep channels cut into the seabed (-68.5 m Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT)). The shallowest area was recorded in the west of the Proposed Development array area (-32.4 m LAT). The seabed depth across the majority of the Proposed Development array area is recorded between -40 m to -60 m LAT. The seabed is generally recorded as undulating, representing historical erosion with a gentle slope downwards towards the east and south-east. A number of channels have been recorded across the area of various depths and widths of a few metres to several kilometres (Fugro 2019).
  8. The site-specific geophysical survey recorded mega ripples and sand waves specifically on the western flanks of the large-scale banks. Sand bars (shelly, gravelly sand-filled trenches representing relic
    glacial-fluvio marine-reworked sediments) were recorded mainly on the western slopes of the highest topographic areas, whilst furrows and erosion was mainly recorded on the eastern slopes. Extensive boulder fields and isolated boulders were recorded across the Proposed Development array area, and swathes of trawl marks were also recorded. Consequently, it is apparent that post-glacial seabed erosion has taken place to some extent across the Proposed Development array area.
  9. The site-specific bathymetry records a varied seabed morphology with two large-scale banks (the Marr Bank and the northern part of the Berwick Bank array area), two main ridges (possibly representing ice-marginal features in southern part of the Proposed Development array area) and incised valleys/relict glacial lake and channels, as discussed above (Fugro, 2019). Features such as infilled channels, ridges and kettle holes/glacial lakes could represent relict periglacial conditions (ice edge environments) during periods when the seabed was potentially exposed, and it is these areas that could have been exploited by early hominins.

Figure 4.1:
Schematic Geomodel of Quaternary Stratigraphy of the Proposed Development Export Cable Corridor (Top) and Proposed Development Array area (Bottom)

Figure 4.1: Schematic Geomodel of Quaternary Stratigraphy of the Proposed Development Export Cable Corridor (Top) and Proposed Development Array area (Bottom)

 

4.1.3. Proposed Development Export Cable Corridor

  1. The pre-Quaternary bedrock across the Proposed Development export cable corridor is characterised by Triassic siliciclastic and argillaceous rock, and sandstone and Permian mudstone and gypsum stone in the eastern part of the route, Dinantian siliciclastic and argillaceous rock and sandstone in the central and inshore part of the route. Generally, the bedrock is overlain by later Quaternary deposits although it is locally exposed. The bedrock has been incised with a series of features interpreted as channels or tunnel valleys infilled by early to middle Quaternary deposits (Fugro, 2020).
  2. The Aberdeen Ground Formation (recorded as Unit E (Fugro, 2019 and 2020a and 2020b; Figure 4.1   Open ▸ ) forms the earliest Quaternary deposit within the Proposed Development export cable corridor, although it was only identified locally in the east of the route. Across the remainder of the route, it is indistinguishable from the pre-Quaternary bedrock.
  3. The Marr Bank Formation (recorded as Unit D (Fugro, 2019 and 2020a and 2020b; Figure 4.1   Open ▸ ) was only identified in the eastern part of the Proposed Development export cable corridor.
  4. The Wee Bankie Formation (recorded as Unit C (Fugro, 2019 and 2020a and 2020b; Figure 4.1   Open ▸ ) is recorded centrally and to the east of the Proposed Development export cable corridor and is discontinuous in the west. It infills palaeo-channels, which are up to 90 m thick. These channels cut into the underlying Marr Bank Formation or Aberdeen Ground Formation and may represent tunnel valleys.


Figure 4.2:
Main Geomorphological Features Shown on MBES Bathymetry Survey within Proposed Development Array Area

Figure 4.2: Main Geomorphological Features Shown on MBES Bathymetry Survey within Proposed Development Array Area

  1. The Forth Formation/St Abbs Formation (recorded as Unit B3 (Fugro, 2019 and 2020a and 2020b; Figure 4.1   Open ▸ ) is present primarily in the east of the Proposed Development export cable corridor and south of the Proposed Development array area. The deposit was laid down in glacio-lacustrine to glacio-marine conditions during the late Devensian/early Holocene and comprises sands, silts or clays. It infills channels incised into the underlying Wee Bankie Formation and also forms part of the infill of palaeo-valleys incised into the Aberdeen Ground Formation. These palaeo-valleys form a complex up to 30 km in width (Fugro, 2019).
  2. The St Abbs Formation (recorded as Unit B2 (Fugro, 2019 and 2020a and 2020b; Figure 4.1   Open ▸ ) is present within the central and western survey areas. It is thought to consist of clays and occasional gravels deposited in glacio-lacustrine to glacio-marine conditions laid down during the Late Devensian. Geotechnical boreholes in the Proposed Development export cable corridor might indicate the presence of organic material/peat within this Unit (Fugro, 2019).
  3. The Largo Bay Member of the Forth Formation (recorded as Unit B1 (Fugro, 2019 and 2020; Figure 4.1   Open ▸ ) is present in the central and western part of the survey area. It is characterised by clays, silts and occasional gravels deposited in glacio-marine conditions in the Late Devensian.
  4. A mix of seabed sediments and St Andrews Bay Member of the Forth Formation (recorded as Unit A (Fugro, 2019 and 2020; Figure 4.1   Open ▸ ) is recorded across the bulk of the surveyed area of unit. The St Andrews Bay Member consists of clayey and gravelly sand and was deposited in the early Holocene. It represents shallow marine or estuarine environments and overlays the Largo Bay Member. It infills a number of large valleys and depressions in the Forth Formation. Later Holocene seabed sediments laid down under marine conditions are also recorded.
  5. Across the Proposed Development export cable corridor, the seabed slopes gently towards the east reaching seabed depth of 60 m LAT in the centre of the corridor before decreasing to between 30 m – 40 m depth over the southern part of the Marr Bank and then increasing again to depths of about 64 m deep at the eastern extent (Fugro, 2019) ( Figure 4.2   Open ▸ ).
  6. Ripples, mega ripples, sand bars and ribbons characterise the seabed morphology across the Proposed Development export cable corridor. Extensive trawl marks dominate the centre of the Proposed Development export cable corridor but stop before the ridges outcrop, whilst the eastern extent of the corridor’s morphology is very similar to that discussed above for the Proposed Development array area. Consequently, post-glacial seabed erosion is considered likely to have taken place to some extent across the Proposed Development export cable corridor.
  7. The bathymetry again ( Figure 4.2   Open ▸ ) records a varied and uneven seabed morphology framed by the pre-Holocene landscape of outcrops, ridges, high topographic mounds, incised valleys and channels. The western extent consists of a rocky outcrop covered by a thin layer of sediment. The central part of the Proposed Development export cable corridor is dominated by an elongated ridge rising for about 6 m from the seabed and interpreted as pre-Quaternary bedrock. A rocky outcrop/platform has been identified within the nearshore area that extends up to 6 km offshore (Fugro, 2020). This platform may tie in with the Main Late glacial shoreline recorded elsewhere along the east coast of Scotland (Stoker, 2008). The eastern extent includes some high topographic features, incised valleys and channels similar to those recorded in the Proposed Development array area.


Figure 4.3:
Main Geomorphological Features Shown on MBES Bathymetry Survey

Figure 4.3: Main Geomorphological Features Shown on MBES Bathymetry Survey

4.2. Submerged Prehistoric Archaeology

  1. This section characterises the potential for submerged prehistoric archaeology to be present within the marine archaeology study area. For example, deposits containing archaeological material (e.g., flint tools), or submerged landscapes. This section is informed by the geophysical baseline data and desk-based review of secondary sources cited within the text.
  2. The archaeological/geological time periods set out in Table 4.1   Open ▸ are covered in chronological order in the sections below.

 

Table 4.1:
Archaeological and Geological Timeline

Table 4.1:  Archaeological and Geological Timeline

 

4.2.2. Introduction

  1. The three major glaciations (Anglian, Wolstonian and Devensian) have shaped the submerged prehistoric landscape within the North Sea. The cyclical glacial periods throughout the Quaternary Period ( Table 4.1   Open ▸ ) led to the formation of the thick sediment deposition encountered within the marine archaeology study area. It is possible that evidence of Palaeolithic artefacts and palaeo-landscapes have been deposited in the sediments whenever exposure of the sea floor may have occurred outside the limits of the ice. During these periods much of the Scottish landmass and seabed was likely to have been covered by successive ice sheets and so early archaeological deposits are unlikely. However, during interglacial stages when the glacier retreated and the sea level rose, periglacial (ice edge environments) and palaeo-shorelines developed. It is these areas that could have been exploited by early hominins.
  2. However, there is an absence of early to middle Palaeolithic sites within Scotland. The earliest reliable evidence for human occupation in Scotland comes from a flint assemblage from Howburn Farm, South Lanarkshire. This evidence has been roughly dated to the Windemere Interstadial of the early Lateglacial period of late Upper Palaeolithic date (Ballin, Saville; Tipping et al., 2010). This absence of early material is likely due to sub-glacial conditions, but could be due to the effects of glaciation which could have destroyed/scoured away isolated finds or buried them beneath later glacial deposits. As such, evidence of early archaeological deposits or isolated finds should not be entirely ruled-out. Evidence from the rest of the UK supports the possibility of Palaeolithic finds, where Palaeolithic evidence pre-dates 780,000 B.P. and the pre-Anglian glaciation (Cromerian Glacial stage). For example, at Happisburgh on the north Norfolk coast, lower Palaeolithic flint artefacts and hominin footprints have been encountered in the Cromer Forest Bed Formation.
  3. Tools and faunal remains potentially deposited during the Devensian, were found during offshore dredging works off the coast of Great Yarmouth in Norfolk, confirming the potential for Palaeolithic evidence to survive in underwater contexts (Wessex Archaeology, 2007). The discovery of an isolated flint scraper from a borehole sample on the Viking Bank in the North Sea also confirms that prehistoric deposits can survive within submerged landscapes (Flemming, 2004).
  4. The recent Waterlands project funded by the Marine Aggregate Levy (ABP Marine Environment Research Ltd, 2010) has characterised the potential for palaeo-landscape material across the UK. The Waterlands project identified the North Sea area where the marine archaeology study area is located as ‘low potential’ for palaeo-landscape material. The seabed is thought to have been submerged or covered by ice since the last glacial maximum and further, the exposure of hard rock outcrops to the marine environment means that the preservation of archaeological or palaeo-environmental remains is unlikely.
  5. The near shore/intertidal western extent of the Proposed Development export cable corridor lies in an area of known high potential for archaeology. Here, marine palaeo-landscape features and areas of dry land which are now submerged could once have been favourable areas of habitation (ABP Marine Environment Research Ltd, 2010). This ties in with Flemming’s strategic environmental assessment of this part of the North Sea (Flemming, 2004). Flemming’s study concluded that the potential for archaeological material relating to the Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods is low. However, the study acknowledges a period during the ice retreat of the Post Devensian phase (before the rising sea level covered the exposed seabed) when western extent of the marine archaeology study area may have been exposed and open for exploitation.

4.2.3. Pre-Devensian >780,000 B.P. – c73,000 B.P. Lower and Middle Palaeolithic

  1. The earliest Quaternary deposits within the marine archaeology study area are represented by the Aberdeen Ground Formation. This formation is considered partially contemporary with some of the earliest deposits associated with hominid activity associated with the UK. For example, the Aberdeen Ground Formation is contemporary with the Cromer Forest Bed formation located at Happisburgh as discussed above and therefore of similar archaeological potential. However, glacial, and marine deposits characterise the Aberdeen Ground Formation within the marine archaeology study area. These are associated with environments that are not conducive for hominid activity, suggesting there is limited potential for in-situ remains. In addition, the formation pre-dates the earliest known evidence of hominid activity in Scotland suggesting the archaeological potential is very low. Redeposited remains may occur in secondary contexts eroded from formations present in other areas. As no such evidence has been found in Scottish contexts, the likelihood of redeposited remains dating to this period to be present within the marine archaeology study area is also low. However, fine grained sediments and organic remains including wood have been found within the formation suggesting some palaeo-environmental potential.

4.2.4. Devensian to Post Last Glacial Maximum c73, 000 B.P. – 10,000 B.P. Middle and Upper Palaeolithic

  1. There are no deposits dating from the later Middle Palaeolithic periods within the marine archaeology study area (early Devensian). The Wee Bankie, Marr Bank and St Abbs Formation provide evidence of glacial, glacial marine and marine conditions which characterised the area from the Last Glacial Maximum through to the Windermere Interstadial (a relatively warm period towards the end of the Devensian Glaciation).
  2. As discussed above, the Wee Bankie Formation is more dominant in the western side of the Proposed Development array area and east of the Proposed Development export cable corridor and interpreted as terminal moraine or subglacial till. The Wee Bankie Formation is sub-glacial and therefore has no potential to contain in situ prehistoric remains.
  3. Where the Marr Bank Formation meets the Wee Bankie Formation has been interpreted as potentially the interface between the Last Glacial Maximum (to the west) and the sea (to the east). This would corroborate with the Marr Bank Formation representing an outwash plain during the late Devensian. Evidence of a probable kettle hole is present within the Marr Bank deposit. These features often form foci for the accumulation of organic remains and, as such, can have a paleoenvironmental potential. In some areas, prehistoric archaeological remains have been found in association with these features.
  4. The Marr Bank Formation is marine, fluvial, or deltaic. Whilst marine environments would have no potential for in situ material, the edges (if fluvial or deltaic environments) have the potential to be exploited by early human activity. The earliest known evidence for human activity in Scotland post-dates the deposition of this deposit. Given this and the close proximity of the deposit to the ice sheet, the archaeological potential for this deposit is considered to be limited.
  5. Following the glacial retreat into the Firth of Forth (15,000 – 14,000 B.P.), the resulting rise in sea level meant that the marine archaeology study area would have been submerged by cool arctic waters. The coastline would therefore potentially have been located much further to the west. This correlates with the deposition of the St Abbs Formation and suggests that this deposit has a low archaeological potential. However, the possible presence of peat recorded within the Proposed Development export cable corridor does suggest that this deposit does have a palaeo-environmental potential.
  6. The Marr Bank Formation was deposited during the Windemere Interstadial when the marine archaeology study area was submerged. Consequently, the archaeological potential of this deposit is low although toward the end of the Interstadial, relative sea level may have reached close to present day levels and consequently the intertidal zone (not considered part of this assessment) and near shore area was likely to have been exposed during this period. Therefore, where upper parts of the Largo Bay Member have been identified in the nearshore areas there may be some archaeological potential.
  7. During the Loch Lomond (Younger Dryas) Stadial (c13,000 – 12,000 B.P.) colder conditions were established and once again ice sheet expansion led to a drop in sea level. Around the east coast of Scotland this now submerged shoreline (termed the Main Late Glacial Shoreline) has been recorded. A bedrock platform identified within the nearshore area of the Proposed Development export cable corridor may tie in with the Main Late Glacial Shoreline and could represent an area of archaeological potential during the late Upper Palaeolithic/Early Mesolithic periods. Deposition of the St Andrews Bay Member of the Forth Formation, thought to have begun in this cold period, is recorded across the bulk of the Proposed Development export cable corridor. The glacial conditions of this stadial may have rendered the area largely unfavourable for human habitation however archaeological evidence cannot be entirely ruled-out in the nearshore areas. This potential is dependent on the nature of the St Andrews Bay Member/seabed sediment and future geotechnical investigations in this area will shed further light on this.

4.2.5. Early Holocene 10,000 B.P. – 6000 B.P. Mesolithic

  1. Deposits within the marine archaeology study area and particularly the Forth Formation, may have the potential to contribute to our understanding of relative sea levels. On the basis of the available evidence, the marine archaeology study area has been inundated for much of the Holocene and whilst near shore areas may have been exposed during the early Holocene, the current intertidal zone may have been characterised as such from the mid Holocene. Extensive shell middens identified in excavations along the east coast, the Forth and a short distance inland from the Firth of Forth indicate that the intertidal and nearshore areas were exploited during the Mesolithic period. Excavations were carried out at Echline, South Queensferry from 2010-2011 at which a Mesolithic sunken-floored structure and possible other Mesolithic structures were uncovered (Dingwall et al., 2011). The Echline area where these excavations were carried out would have had easy access to the maritime and coastal resources of the Firth of Forth. Other examples of Mesolithic activity have been located along the south of the Firth of Forth including evidence of temporary settlement activity at Cramond. A Mesolithic shell midden was found at Stannergate at Dundee adjacent to the Tay Estuary. This shell midden would once have been located closer to the shoreline, confirming the exploitation of the shoreline during this period (Dunwell and Ralston, 2008). There is therefore the potential for archaeological remains to occur within the nearshore area of the Proposed Development export cable corridor within the Forth Formation deposits although erosion and reworking of deposits may have disturbed or removed any evidence.
  2. Overall based on the available evidence it is considered unlikely that evidence of in situ submerged prehistoric archaeology survives within the Proposed Development site apart from the near shore area of the Proposed Development export cable corridor which is considered to have a heightened archaeological potential based on the survey results recorded to the south. Figure 4.4   Open ▸ identifies the extent of this potential based on the extents of Unit A and B in the nearshore (and intertidal zone) extending outward to the possible Late Glacial Shoreline. If any in situ evidence is encountered it could be considered to be of local, regional to national importance.

Figure 4.4:
Areas of Submerged Prehistoric/Palaeo-Environmental Potential

Figure 4.4: Areas of Submerged Prehistoric/Palaeo-Environmental Potential

4.3. Maritime Archaeology

  1. The maritime archaeology of the UK is the product of a complex interplay of constantly evolving coastal and marine activities, international links and patterns of shipping, and sea use since the earliest human occupation of the UK during the late Palaeolithic to the Mesolithic. By the end of the Mesolithic, the marine archaeology study area had been inundated and was a fully marine environment. This section reviews the presence (and potential presence) of maritime archaeology within the marine archaeology study area associated with these maritime activities, such as shipwrecks, associated material, and aviation archaeology. Military remains are also covered within the scope of the maritime archaeology considered in this section.
  2. Through this section, the maritime archaeological record of the marine archaeology study area has been considered chronologically for the following broad temporal phases: Early Prehistoric, Neolithic and Bronze Age, Iron Age and Roman, Early Medieval and Medieval, and Post-Medieval and Modern. The archaeological potential considered for these temporal phases are summarised in Table 4.2   Open ▸ .
  3. Records of known wreck sites and losses in UK waters are biased towards the Post-Medieval and Modern periods and therefore the precise locations of most wrecks pre-dating these periods in UK waters are not known. The majority of known and recorded wreck sites lie relatively close to the coast. The proximity of many historical sailing routes to the coast and the natural hazards of the North Sea can be expected to have been a determining factor in many maritime casualties in the past (Wessex Archaeology, 2004). Designated, known and recorded wrecks explored in greater detail in section 4.4.

4.3.2. Early Prehistoric (Palaeolithic to Mesolithic)

  1. There is currently no evidence in the UK for maritime archaeological remains pre-dating the start of the Holocene. However, there are examples from elsewhere in the world which suggest that primitive watercraft were in use by the Middle Palaeolithic period, such as the suggestion that the colonization of Australia approximately 40,000 B.P. involved island-hopping in or on primitive watercraft (Lourandos, 1997).
  2. During the Late Upper Palaeolithic (approximately 12,000 B.P.), it is possible that simple watercraft such as log boats or rafts were used for coastal journeys and fishing within the British Isles (Wessex Archaeology, 2007; Dunkley, 2016), however no evidence of Palaeolithic sea-faring craft is currently known.
  3. The first archaeological evidence for the use of watercraft in the UK dates to the Mesolithic (approximately 10,500 to 6,000 Before Christ (B.C.)) and is from Star Carr in Yorkshire where fragments of a wooden oar have been identified (Van de Noort, 2011, Wessex Archaeology, 2007). A late Mesolithic/early Neolithic burial in a partially burnt dugout canoe was found in St. Albans, Hertfordshire in 1988 (Dunkley, 2016). Finds in Germany and Denmark suggest that logboats were used for coastal journeys.
  4. Watercraft may have been used in the rivers and estuaries during the Mesolithic for coastal journeys, fishing expeditions, and possibly longer journeys in favourable weather. The evidence of the exploitation of the coastal resource by this period suggests the possible use of watercraft during this period. They are likely to have become increasingly important to the Mesolithic inhabitants with rising sea levels. However due to the paucity of evidence and fluvial activity across the marine archaeology study area, the potential for the survival of any archaeology associated with the maritime environment from the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods is considered unlikely.

4.3.3. Neolithic and Bronze Age

  1. No evidence of Neolithic or Bronze Age maritime activity has been recorded within the marine archaeology study area.
  2. Direct archaeological evidence for the human exploitation of marine resources and maritime activity in the UK during the Neolithic is limited to a number of logboat finds (Johnstone, 1980; Wilkinson and Murphy, 1995; Bradley et al., 1997). Evidence from shell middens at Neolithic sites containing the bones of deep-water fish indicates the capability of journeying onto the open sea (Ellmers, 1996).
  3. Indirect archaeological evidence also indicates the advent of Neolithic maritime trade. The discovery in the UK of stone axes made in Ireland implies sea transport (Breen and Forsythe, 2004). McGrail (2004) suggests Neolithic technology may have supported complex logboats for use at sea and, possibly, simple plank boats for use in inland waters. No archaeological evidence for such craft has yet been found.
  4. The Bronze Age (approximately 1,800 to 600 B.C.) was a period of technological innovation and of expansion of trade and exchange networks, facilitated by the introduction of new forms of boats both for ocean and coastal/riverine trade. Clear advances occurred in maritime technology during this period and an increasingly substantial maritime archaeological record allows a less speculative understanding of maritime culture than for earlier periods.
  5. A number of logboats recorded in Scotland date from the Bronze Age including one from the intertidal zone of the Tay estuary (Strachan, 2004). Inland close to the shore of Linlithgow Loch a logboat was uncovered during the excavations of foundations in the late 19th century at Linlithgow in West Lothian (Mowat 1996). Hide boats are argued to have been a common vessel during this period and sewn plank boats were a new development (Van de Noort, 2011). The latter have been described as the most advanced form of early water transport and would have been readily adaptable for use in riverine, estuarine and possibly even sea-going environments (Lillie, 2005). There have been several examples of these flat-bottomed sewn plank boats found, ranging from the Brigg ‘raft’ (dated to 825 to 760 B.C.) (Chapman and Chapman, 2005; McGrail, 1981) and North Ferriby boats (built between approximately 2,000 to 1,700 B.C.) from the Humber (Cunliffe, 2001; Van de Noort, 2003), and the substantial remains of a boat from Dover in Kent which is particularly significant for its sea-going capabilities (Clark, 2002). No evidence of this type of craft have been recovered from the Firth of Forth and Tay, or within the marine archaeology study area.
  6. The proximity of the marine archaeology study area to possible shipping routes across the North Sea and up and down the east coast suggests that during the Bronze Age, vessels may have been passing through the marine archaeology study area. It is therefore considered that there is a low to moderate potential for remains of such vessels to be present within the marine archaeology study area.

4.3.4. Iron Age and Roman

  1. No evidence of Iron Age or Roman maritime activity has been recorded in the marine archaeology study area.
  2. Extensive maritime activities in the North Sea during the Iron Age (approximately 600 B.C. to Anno Domini (A.D.) 43) and during the Roman occupation of Britain (A.D. 43 to 410) are well-documented, and there is good evidence of regular trade from the Continent, including Roman trade between Britain and the Rhine provinces (Milne, 1990).
  3. A distinct tradition of substantial, sea-going vessel (known as the ‘Romano-Celtic’ type) was developed in north-western Europe during the later Iron Age (Marsden, 1994). Examples include the Blackfriars boat from London (Marsden, 1994; Dunkley, 2016) and the Barlands Farm boat, from the Severn Estuary in southeast Wales (Nayling and McGrail, 2004).
  4. There is strong documentary and archaeological evidence that Roman ports were developed along the east coast of the UK to facilitate trade and to protect the exposed eastern side of Roman-occupied Britain. The military establishment made extensive use of the region’s coastal waters for transporting people and goods to and from garrisons as far north as the Firth of Forth (Larn and Larn, 1998).
  5. The scale of shipping during this period is poorly represented by the shipping remains in the archaeological record, but discoveries of artefact concentrations on the seabed, such as the pottery from Pan Sand in the Thames and a number of other locations around the UK, point to the survival of lost cargoes and shipwrecks from the Roman period (Breen and Forsythe, 2004; Delgado, 1997).
  6. Together with the evidence for substantial commercial trade this suggests that Iron Age and Roman maritime traffic may have passed through the marine archaeology study area. It is also likely that many more vessels of this period were lost than the available archaeological evidence suggests, increasing the potential that remains from this period could be present within the marine archaeology study area.

4.3.5. Early Medieval and Medieval

  1. No evidence of Early Medieval and Medieval maritime activity has been recorded within the marine archaeology study area.
  2. The decline of the Roman navy (Classis Britannica) in the 5th century A.D. left the sea around Britain open for others to use. Maritime activity in the North Sea and in the vicinity increased during the Early Medieval period. This was due, in part, to Viking raiding, the intensification of regional trade and migration that followed, and the growth of a number of major ports on the east coast of the UK (Hutchinson, 1997; Friel, 2003).
  3. The Viking presence and influence along the east coast of the UK would have demanded the control of rivers and estuaries which secured access to trade routes and passage across the North Sea. Evidence of Viking influence close to the marine archaeology study area is reflected in place names and also the location of Viking hoards along the Forth and Tay estuaries (Owen, 1999). Evidence for Viking vessels has been found in Orkney and there is a number of accounts of maritime travel from Orkney. 
  4. The level of shipping passing through the marine archaeology study area during this period is high enough to suggest that there is a moderate to good potential for archaeological remains to exist within the marine archaeology study area.
  5. The Medieval period in the UK saw an increase in overseas trade and the expansion of towns and villages into larger trading centres. With this came the development of new shipbuilding techniques and technologies; the emphasis changing from the multi-tasking vessels of the past towards more specialised cargo vessels designed around the requirements of the owner and cargo type.
  6. The Hanseatic League, established in Lubeck in 1169, protected traders against pirates and extortionate tariffs often levied on trade. This multinational economic alliance encouraged trade between north-western European nations, utilising seaborne links between the North Sea and the Baltic. At its height the League represented some 84 cities, including east coast ports such as Newcastle, Hull, King’s Lynn, Norwich and Great Yarmouth, all developing rapidly to facilitate the growing trade in coal, timber and wine (Hutchinson, 1997; Woodman, 1997).
  7. The level of medieval maritime activity within the North Sea suggests that the potential presence of Medieval period shipwrecks within the marine archaeology study area is moderate.

4.3.6. Post Medieval and Modern

  1. The growth of commercial maritime trade beginning during the Late Medieval period continued and expanded in the Post Medieval period. Alongside overseas ventures which were expanding rapidly, inland and local coasting trade continued to be important in the region in the Post Medieval period. During this period, the number of vessels crossing the North Sea increased significantly, particularly after the Tudor period and the establishment of the Royal Navy in the 16th century. The marine archaeology study area was therefore an area of concentrated commercial and military maritime activity.
  2. From the 18th century onwards, records were kept of ship losses, with records becoming more detailed from the 19th century. Rapid industrialisation in the 18th and 19th centuries revolutionised shipbuilding, introducing technological innovation that precipitated fundamental changes in maritime technology. By the end of the 19th century with the advent of the steam engine, the introduction of iron hulls and the development of the screw propeller had wrought major transformations on ships and shipping (Lambert, 2001). Although steam and steel came to dominate shipping during the 19th century, there remained a strong local core of maritime activity around much of the coast of the UK which retained the more traditional, often wooden vessel types. For example, at the turn of the 20th century, much of the fishing in the North Sea was still conducted by fleets of sailing smacks and there was a rise in fishing settlements along the east coast during the 18th and 19th centuries. Many of the losses in this area reported from this period are of former fishing vessels.
  3. A large number of wrecks recorded in this part of the North Sea are from major storm events (Ferguson, 1991). All but one of the wrecks recorded close to the shore in the UKHO data within the Proposed Development export cable corridor were lost due to a storm event (see section 4.4).
  4. The increasing incorporation of metal structural elements into vessel designs during this period means that wrecks for the 19th and early 20th centuries are often more visible on the seabed than their wooden predecessors. They are visible to geophysical survey, and also generate strong magnetic anomalies, and this greater visibility is reflected in the increased number of known wrecks (i.e., those that have been located on the seabed) for the period under discussion, in contrast to the periods discussed previously. All known wrecks recorded within the marine archaeology study area date from the late 19th and early 20th centuries (see section 4.4)).
  5. The potential for unrecorded archaeology to be discovered within the marine archaeology study area dating to the Post Medieval period is therefore considered to be moderate to good and from the 18th and 19th century onwards is good.

4.3.7. Modern Military Remains

  1. The maritime archaeological record of the 20th century until the present day is dominated by remains associated with the First and Second World Wars. Warships, submarines, and U-boats along with cargo vessels, personnel transport vessels and aircraft, comprise the losses during this period. The majority of known shipwrecks in the North Sea basin within which the marine archaeology study area is located are the results of military activity. It is thought that initial losses in the First World War were due to the blackouts along the coast which led to wrecks along the shoreline, and then the subsequent U-boat offensive which sunk a number of Royal Navy submarines (and U-boats) in the Outer Tay and Forth and North Sea basin (Ferguson, 1991). During the Second World War, approximately 50 merchant vessels were sunk off the north-east coast, along with military vessels (Headland Archaeology, 2011). All but one of the known wrecks recorded by the UKHO within the Proposed Development array area were merchant ships lost due to military action (see section 4.4).
  2. A substantial number of military and civilian aircraft casualties have occurred in UK waters since the advent of powered flight in the early 20th century. The bulk of these are casualties of the Second World War, mostly concentrated off the south and southeast coasts of England, as the majority of air combats and military airfields were based here. Records of aircraft losses at sea are seldom tied to an accurate position, further complicating an assessment of the likelihood of aircraft wreckage on the seabed. However the identification of aircraft wrecks has become increasingly common in recent years, with a number located in the course of surveys carried out in support of seabed development. 
  3. Only a small number of British and German aircraft and airships are recorded as being lost around the UK during the First World War (Wessex Archaeology, 2008). Although it is possible that some of these losses occurred in the North Sea, no evidence for the First World War aircraft casualties within the marine archaeology study area has been identified. The lightweight construction of these early airframes also means they are unlikely to survive unless buried in seabed sediments.
  4. According to Bédoyère (2001), during the Second World War an average of five aircraft were lost over the UK every day, many of these losses occurring over the sea. A small number of offshore aircraft losses have been recorded off the north-east coast of Scotland and a number of military bases are located in the vicinity of the marine archaeology study area such as Leuchars and Crail, which were Royal Air Force (RAF) bases in use during both World Wars. One of the first German aircraft shot down during the Second World War was during an attack on the Royal Navy by 12 German aircraft in the Firth of Forth in October 1939 (Headland Archaeology, 2011).
  5. The aviation archaeology record is potentially very large, but the ephemeral nature of aircraft wrecks ensures that many sites remain unrecorded. The current available evidence does not provide a precise location of any aircraft crash sites. RAF Second World War Air/Sea Rescue operation distribution maps record a large number of operations in and around the marine archaeology study area (Wessex Archaeology, 2008) and whilst the mapped locations of these operations are not wholly reliable, they provide a useful general guide to these operations in the area and support the other evidence for a potentially substantial number of aircraft wrecks in the marine archaeology study area.
  6. Since the Second World War there have been few aviation losses and therefore post-war aircraft remains are unlikely to be discovered.
  7. On the basis of the information presented above, it is considered that there is a moderate to good potential for modern military maritime and aviation archaeological sites and material on the seabed of the marine archaeology study area.

4.3.8. Summary

  1. The archaeological potential by period, and the likely significance or value of any archaeological remains which may be present within the marine archaeology study area are summarised in Table 4.2   Open ▸ . The significance of any remains is dependent on their state of preservation.

 

Table 4.2:
Summary of Archaeological Potential and Value

Table 4.2: Summary of Archaeological Potential and Value

 

4.4. Designated, Known and Recorded Wrecks

  1. This section correlates the results of a review of UKHO, NRHE and HER data to establish designated, known and recorded maritime archaeology within the marine archaeology study area.

4.4.2. Designated Wrecks

  1. There are no historic MPAs designated under the Marine (Scotland) Act 2010 within the marine archaeology study area.
  2. U 12 was a submarine built in 1908-1911 in Danzig, Germany and in March 1915 was patrolling the east coast of Scotland when she was rammed by HMS Ariel and subsequently came under fire. Ten crew managed to escape before she sunk and 19 crew were lost. The wreck lies within the west of the marine archaeology study area but outside the Proposed Development array area ( Figure 4.5   Open ▸ ) and has been declared a war grave and so falls under the protection of the Protection of Military Remains Act. It is therefore considered a designated heritage asset despite the absence of a record of its designation in the available baseline information.

4.4.3. Known Wrecks and Recorded Losses

  1. Data for known ship and aircraft wrecks and any recorded shipping losses were obtained as appropriate from the UKHO, the National Record of the Historic Environment (NRHE) held by HES and the Scottish Borders and East Lothian Historic Environment Record (HER). The UKHO, HER and NRHE datasets provide a general picture of maritime casualties in the last 150 to 200 years but should also not be viewed as representing the totality of even the more recent potential maritime archaeological remains in the area ( Figure 4.5   Open ▸ ).

Figure 4.5:
UKHO, NRHE and HER Data within the Marine Archaeology Study Area

Figure 4.5: UKHO, NRHE and HER Data within the Marine Archaeology Study Area

  1. Wrecks and obstructions (some of which may represent wrecks or wreck material) listed by UKHO, are generally charted, although a small number lack accurate positional information. Although most of these wrecks and obstructions have at one time or another been located on the seabed, many were first identified before the advent of modern surveying techniques and may have been located using a positional system such as the Decca System, which was considerably less accurate than modern satellite navigation systems, such as the United States’ Global Positioning System (GPS).
  2. Previously charted wrecks or obstructions not located during subsequent surveys may have had their status amended by the UKHO to “dead”. This may be the result of mistaken identification when first identified, inaccurate coordinates, the degradation/destruction of the wreck, or its burial by sediment. This cannot be taken to imply that the wreckage is no longer on the seabed and the location may still contain remains of archaeological interest. However, a reasonable assumption can be made that the wreck is not verified to that specific location if following the project specific geophysical survey, the wreck is still not located at that position. All UKHO records in the marine archaeology study area are thus discussed below, regardless of their current status. The UKHO holds data for a total of 47 wrecks and obstructions (27 live records and 20 dead records) within the marine archaeology study area.
  3. The Gazetteer at annex A lists all the UKHO data within the marine archaeology study area.
  4. The marine component of the NRHE originally comprised just the UKHO Wreck Index and as such there is a potential for an overlap of records (for the purpose of this report any repeated data has been removed). This database has since been enhanced by the addition of substantial numbers of historical records of shipping and aircraft casualties, drawn from a range of principally documentary and archival sources. Positions given are often not precise. Often the locations are aggregations at a single, arbitrary position of one or more maritime records for which no other grid reference or position is available. These positions reflect general loss locations, usually drawn from descriptions in the documentary records, or the indicative positions of seabed finds and do not (except by chance) relate to the position of the physical remains of the sites on the seabed which they list.
  5. The NRHE held by HES holds data for 48 wrecks and obstructions within the marine archaeology study area. The Gazetteer at annex B lists all the NRHE data within the marine archaeology study area. However, only one has a verified location whilst the remainder are all unverified locations obtained from documentary sources such Whitaker (1998) and Baird (1993).
  6. The marine component of the Scottish Borders and East Lothian HERs generally comprises records obtained from the UKHO Wreck Index and documentary sources such as Whitaker and Larn and Larn (1998). There is therefore an overlap with some of the UKHO and NRHE data discussed above (any repeated data has been removed). However, the HERs also hold additional data not included on the UKHO or NRHE, this data has also been obtained from documentary sources and as a result none of the wreck locations have been verified.

4.4.4. Proposed Development Array Area

  1. A total of 15 wrecks are recorded on the UKHO data records to lie within the Proposed Development array area, five of which are known; Desabla, Kitty, Rudolph, Benbow and Oswin:
  • Desabla was built in 1913 in Newcastle and was a British Tanker on passage from Port Arthur, Texas carrying linseed oil in 1915 when it was shelled by a German submarine, the crew abandoned ship and it was later sunk by charges, no lives were lost. The UKHO records its position as dead however the wreck was discovered by divers in 2010 lying on its port side (content available on the Wrecksite database accessed in August 2021 www.wrecksite.eu).
  • Kitty was built in 1898 in Hull and was a fishing trawler on passage to Peterhead for fishing when it was captured by submarine and sunk by explosives in 1917. No lives were lost.
  • Rudolph was built in 1922 and was on passage from Hartlepool to Malmo carrying coal when it was mined. Its charted position has not been verified by survey and so its position is recorded as dead.
  • Benbow was a British fishing trawler built in 1898 and was scuttled by a German submarine in 1917. No lives were lost. Its charted position has not been verified by survey and so its position is recorded as dead.
  • Oswin was built in 1890 in Whitby, it was a cargo ship on voyage to Goteburg carrying coal when it was sunk by a German submarine in 1918. No lives were lost.
    1. The NRHE records a further seven wrecks within the Proposed Development array area although their positions are not verified.
    2. No wrecks or other archaeological finds have been recorded on the Scottish Borders and East Lothian HER within the Proposed Development array area.  

4.4.5. 2 km Buffer around Proposed Development Array Area

  1. UKHO data records five wrecks within the 2 km buffer around the Proposed Development array area and only two are known, the U12 Designated Wreck discussed above and Tizona.
  2. The NRHE records two wrecks within the 2 km buffer.
  3. No wrecks are recorded on the Scottish Borders or East Lothian HER within the 2 km buffer.

4.4.6. Proposed Development Export Cable Corridor

  1. A total of seven wrecks and one obstruction (geological) are recorded in the UKHO to lie within the Proposed Development export cable corridor, three of which are known; Craddock, Sharon Vale, Tizona.

4.4.7. 2 km Buffer around the Proposed Development Export Cable Corridor

  1. There are nine wrecks and two obstructions recorded on the UKHO within the 2 km buffer around the Proposed Development export cable corridor and four are known:
  • Halland which was built in 1923 and owned by the Ministry of Shipping at time of loss. It was on passage for London from Dundee when it was bombed and sunk by Germain aircraft.
  • River Garry was built in 1883 in Belfast and was a cargo ship carrying coal on passage from Leith to London when in 1893 it foundered in a Force 12 storm after being driven ashore. All lives were lost.
  • Captain was built in 1898 and was foundered nine miles north-east of St Abbs Head. 
  • Sharon Vale was a British fishing ship which sunk in 1979 when its hold became flooded, and the bulkhead failed. Its charted position has not been verified by survey and so its position is recorded as dead.

 

  1. The NRHE records an additional 12 wrecks within the 2 km buffer around the Proposed Development export cable corridor.
  2. The Scottish Borders HER record an additional three wrecks within the 2 km buffer.
  3. The East Lothian HER record an additional five wrecks within the 2 km buffer. In addition, the HER records that ballast potentially associated with the wreck HMS Nymph was recorded during an underwater survey in 1973 (EEL458 Figure 4.5   Open ▸ ).