Tier 3

Operation and Maintenance Phase

Magnitude of impact

  1. The only Tier 3 project which have been identified in the CEA with the potential to result in cumulative EMF effects from subsea electrical cabling within the Proposed Development is the Cambois connection. The Cambois connection includes up to 680 km of cable therefore combining this with tier 2 projects and the Proposed Development would lead to a cumulative length of 6,792 km.
  2. The cumulative impact is predicted to be of local spatial extent, long term duration, continuous and not reversible during the operation and maintenance phase (only at the decommissioning stage) of the relevant projects. It is predicted that the impact will affect the receptor directly. The magnitude is therefore, considered to be low.

Sensitivity of the receptor

  1. The sensitivity of fish and shellfish IEFs is low as described in section 9.11, paragraphs 241 to 254.

Significance of the effect

Marine Species

  1. For most fish and shellfish ecology IEFs (including herring) the magnitude of the cumulative effect is deemed to be low and the sensitivity of the receptor is considered to be low. The cumulative effect will, therefore, be of negligible to minor adverse significance, which is not significant in EIA terms.
  2. For European lobster and Nephrops edible crab and elasmobranchs, the magnitude of the cumulative effect is deemed to be low and the sensitivity of the receptor is considered to be medium. The cumulative effect will, therefore, be of minor adverse significance, which is not significant in EIA terms.

Diadromous Species

  1. Overall, the magnitude of the impact is deemed to be low and the sensitivity of the receptor is considered to be low. The effect will, therefore, be of negligible to minor adverse significance, which is not significant in EIA terms.

Further mitigation and residual effect

  1. No additional fish and shellfish ecology mitigation is considered necessary as the likely effect in the absence of further mitigation (beyond the designed in measures outlined in section 9.10) is not significant in EIA terms.

Cumulative Colonisation of foundations, scour protection and cable protection

Tier 2

Operation and maintenance phase

Magnitude of impact

  1. The introduction of hard substrate into areas of predominantly soft sediments has the potential to alter community composition and biodiversity. This impact is only relevant to the operation and maintenance phase as it takes time for colonisation to establish post construction. The presence of the projects listed in Table 9.32   Open ▸ has the potential to lead to cumulative impacts arising from the colonisation of up to 17,513,271 m2 of hard structures from wind turbines, OSP/Offshore convertor substation platforms, meteorological masts, cable protection, and cable crossings. Table 9.32   Open ▸ lists all projects/plans/activities considered in the Tier 2 assessment which are Inch Cape Offshore Wind Farm, Neart na Gaoithe Offshore Wind Farm, and Seagreen 1, Seagreen 1A Project Seagreen 1A Export Cable Corridor, Eastern Link 1 and Eastern Link 2. There are no values for long-term habitat loss provided in the Environmental Statement for Seagreen 1A Export Cable Corridor however 20% of the 110 km may require cable protection up to 6 m wide (Seagreen Wind Energy Ltd., 2021).
  2. Inch Cape Offshore Wind Farm will contribute to cumulative impacts from the colonisation of hard structures through the presence of wind turbines, substations, and meteorological masts, as well as cable protection for the inter-array and offshore export cables. In the Inch Cape Environmental Statement it is stated that the amount of new hard substrate resulting from Inch Cape Offshore Wind Farm is equivalent to the amount of long-term habitat loss (Inch Cape Offshore Limited, 2018) which is described in Table 9.37   Open ▸ and equates to 2,470,000 m2 of new hard structures (Inch Cape Offshore Limited, 2018).
  3. At the Neart na Gaoithe Offshore Wind Farm, colonisation of hard substrate is predicted to result from the presence of gravity base foundations for the wind turbine foundations, substation foundations, scour protection and cable protection. The amount of new hard substrate equates to 460,000 m2 of new hard structures as shown in Table 9.40   Open ▸ (Mainstream Renewable Power, 2019).
  4. The Seagreen 1 Offshore Wind Farm maximum design scenario for the colonisation of hard structures, as stated in the Environmental Statement (Seagreen Wind Energy, 2012), show that the area available for colonisation is expected to be approximately the same area as is considered for as for long-term habitat loss, the components of which are described in Table 9.37   Open ▸ and equates to 2,026,045 m2 of new hard structure (Seagreen Wind Energy, 2012).
  5. The Seagreen 1A Project hard substrate values have been calculated through a project specific assessment by RPS (further detail in paragraph 304). This assessment showed that the area available for colonisation is expected to be approximately the same area as is considered for long term habitat loss, the components of which are described in Table 9.40   Open ▸ and equates to 158,055 m2 of new hard structure.
  6. The hard substrate installed for Eastern Link 1 includes rock berm with a maximum width of 7 m, no further values regarding hard substrate have been provided (National Grid Electricity Transmission and Scottish Power Transmission, 2022).
  7. The hard substrate installed for Eastern Link 2 includes rock berms up to 138 km, six pipeline crossings, 18 cable crossings and rock protection at the landfall. The amount of new hard substrate available is equivalent to the amount of long term habitat loss which is described in Table 9.40   Open ▸ and equates to 2,200,200 m2 of new hard structures (National Grid Electricity Transmission and Scottish Hydro Electric Transmission plc, 2022).
  8. The cumulative impact is predicted to be of local spatial extent, long term duration, continuous and high reversibility. It is predicted that the impact will affect the receptor directly. The magnitude is therefore, considered to be low.

 

Table 9.40:
Total Area and Component Parts of Introduced Hard Substrate of the Relevant Cumulative Projects in the Operation and Maintenance Phase of the Proposed Development

Table 9.40: Total Area and Component Parts of Introduced Hard Substrate of the Relevant Cumulative Projects in the Operation and Maintenance Phase of the Proposed Development

 

Sensitivity of the receptor

  1. The sensitivity of fish and shellfish IEFs is summarised below, and is as described in section 9.11, paragraphs 263 to 279.

Marine Species

  1. Marine fish and shellfish ecology IEFs in the Proposed Development fish and shellfish ecology study area are deemed to be of low vulnerability, and local to national importance (recoverability is not relevant to this impact during the operation maintenance phase). The sensitivity of the receptor is therefore, considered to be low.

Diadromous Species

  1. Most diadromous fish species are deemed to be of low vulnerability, high recoverability and national to international importance. The sensitivity of these IEFs is therefore, considered to be low.
  2. Atlantic salmon and sea lamprey are deemed to be of low vulnerability, high recoverability and national to international importance. The sensitivity of these IEFs is therefore, considered to be low.
  3. Sea trout are deemed to be of medium vulnerability, high recoverability and national importance. The sensitivity of this IEF is therefore, considered to be low.

Significance of the effect

Marine Species

  1. Overall, the magnitude of the cumulative effect is deemed to be low and the sensitivity of the IEFs is considered to be low. The cumulative effect will, therefore, be of negligible to minor adverse significance, which is not significant in EIA terms.

Diadromous Species

  1. Overall, the magnitude of the cumulative effect is deemed to be low and the sensitivity of these IEFs is considered to be low. The cumulative effect will, therefore, be of negligible to minor adverse significance, which is not significant in EIA terms.

Further mitigation and residual effect

  1. No additional fish and shellfish ecology mitigation is considered necessary as the likely effect in the absence of further mitigation (beyond the designed in measures outlined in section 9.10) is not significant in EIA terms.

Tier 3

Operation and maintenance phase

Magnitude

  1. The only Tier 3 project which have been identified in the CEA with the potential to result in cumulative colonisation of foundations, scour protection and cable protection with the Proposed Development is the Cambois connection.
  2. The Cambois connection has the potential to create 306,000 m2 of new hard habitat associated with rock/mattress cable protection which represents protection covering 15% the total length the four offshore export cables (See Table 9.38   Open ▸ ), therefore it is likely that only a proportion of the cable protection will occupy the fish and shellfish ecology CEA study area, or potentially none of it. The cable protection represents a change in seabed type, the effects of which are described in paragraph 263 et seq., however as the cable protection does not extend into the water column the opportunity for colonisation by some species is reduced. The presence of the Tier 2 and 3 projects has the potential to lead to cumulative impacts arising from the colonisation of up to 15,313,071 m2 of hard structures.
  3. The cumulative impact is predicted to be of local spatial extent, long term duration, continuous and high reversibility. It is predicted that the impact will affect the receptor directly. The magnitude is therefore, considered to be low.

Sensitivity of the receptor

  1. The sensitivity of fish and shellfish IEFs is low as described in section 9.11, paragraphs 263 to 279.

Significance of the effect

Marine Species

  1. Overall, the magnitude of the cumulative effect is deemed to be low and the sensitivity of the IEFs is considered to be low. The cumulative effect will, therefore, be of negligible to minor adverse significance, which is not significant in EIA terms.

Diadromous Species

  1. Overall, the magnitude of the cumulative effect is deemed to be low and the sensitivity of these IEFs is considered to be low. The cumulative effect will, therefore, be of negligible to minor adverse significance, which is not significant in EIA terms.

Further mitigation and residual effect

  1. No additional fish and shellfish ecology mitigation is considered necessary as the likely effect in the absence of further mitigation (beyond the designed in measures outlined in section 9.10) is not significant in EIA terms.

9.12.4.              Proposed Monitoring

  1. Proposed monitoring measures for cumulative effects are the same as outlined in Table 9.30   Open ▸ .

9.13. Transboundary Effects

  1. A screening of transboundary impacts has been carried out and has identified that there was no likely significant transboundary effects with regard to fish and shellfish ecology from the Proposed Development upon the interests of other European Economic Area (EEA) States. This was due to the relatively limited scale of effect and/or temporary nature of the impacts on fish and shellfish which would not result in effects occurring in other countries.

9.14. Inter-Related Effects (And Ecosystem Assessment)

  1. A description of the likely inter-related effects arising from the Proposed Development on fish and shellfish ecology is provided in volume 2, chapter 20 of the Offshore EIA Report.
  2. For fish and shellfish ecology, the following potential impacts have been considered within the inter-related assessment:
  • temporary and long-term subtidal habitat loss/disturbance;
  • increased SSC and associated sediment deposition;
  • EMFs from subsea electrical cabling;
  • injury and/or disturbance to fish and shellfish from underwater noise and vibration; and
  • colonisation of foundations, scour protection and cable protection.
    1. Table 9.41   Open ▸ lists the inter-related effects (project lifetime effects) that are predicted to arise during the construction, operation and maintenance phase, and decommissioning of the Proposed Development and also the inter-related effects (receptor-led effects) that are predicted to arise for marine mammal, offshore ornithology and commercial fisheries receptors.
    2. As noted above, effects on fish and shellfish ecology also have the potential to have secondary effects on other receptors and these effects are fully considered in the topic-specific chapters. These receptors and effects are:
  • marine mammals:

–      changes in the fish and shellfish community resulting from impacts during construction, operation and maintenance, and decommissioning may lead to loss of prey resources for marine mammals resulting in effects of imperceptible significance (see volume 2, chapter 10);

  • offshore ornithology:

–      One key stressor has been identified for offshore and intertidal ornithology. The assessment considers the overall effects on foraging seabirds from potential changes in prey communities that could be caused by disturbance, habitat loss, SSC, and therefore, in this respect, has taken an ecosystem-based approach. The assessment of effects, however, demonstrated that due to the high mobility of foraging seabirds and their ability to exploit different prey species, and the small scale of potential changes in context of wider available habitat, the changes to fish prey communities are unlikely to have a significant effect on foraging seabirds (see volume 2, chapter 11); and

  • commercial fisheries:

–      changes in the fish and shellfish community resulting from impacts during construction, operation and maintenance, and decommissioning may affect commercial fisheries receptors by effects on target species, however as noted in this chapter there are negligible or minor  effects on fish and shellfish receptors therefore negligible or minor  effects are predicted for commercial fisheries (see volume 2, chapter 12), which are not significant in EIA terms.

Table 9.41:
Summary of Likely Significant Inter-Related Effects on the Environment for Fish and Shellfish Ecology from Individual Effects Occurring across the Construction, Operation and Maintenance and Decommissioning Phases of the Proposed Development and from Multiple Effects Interacting Across all Phases (Receptor-led Effects)

Table 9.41: Summary of Likely Significant Inter-Related Effects on the Environment for Fish and Shellfish Ecology from Individual Effects Occurring across the Construction, Operation and Maintenance and Decommissioning Phases of the Proposed Development and from Multiple Effects Interacting Across all Phases (Receptor-led Effects)

9.15. Summary of Impacts, Mitigation Measures, Likely Significant Effects and Monitoring

  1. Information on fish and shellfish ecology within the Proposed Development fish and shellfish ecology study area and the Proposed Development northern North Sea fish and shellfish ecology study area was collected through desktop review, site specific surveys, and consultation. These are summarised in Table 9.8   Open ▸ to Table 9.10   Open ▸ . The baseline characterisation was used to inform the assessment of the fish and shellfish assemblage present within the vicinity of the Proposed Development fish and shellfish ecology study area. Full details of the baseline characterisation are provided in volume 3, appendix 9.1.
  2. Table 9.42   Open ▸ presents a summary of the potential impacts, mitigation measures and the conclusion of likely significant effects in respect to fish and shellfish ecology in EIA terms. The impacts assessed include: temporary subtidal habitat loss/disturbance, increased SSC and associated sediment deposition, injury and/or disturbance to fish and shellfish from underwater noise and vibration, long-term subtidal habitat loss, EMFs from subsea electrical cabling, and colonisation of foundations, scour protection and cable protection. Overall, it is concluded there will be negligible adverse significant effects arising from the Proposed Development during the construction, operation and maintenance or decommissioning phases.
  3. Table 9.43   Open ▸ presents a summary of the potential cumulative impacts, mitigation measures and the conclusion of likely significant cumulative effects on fish and shellfish ecology in EIA terms. The cumulative effects assessed include: temporary subtidal habitat loss/disturbance, increased SSC and associated sediment deposition, injury and/or disturbance to fish and shellfish from underwater noise and vibration, long-term subtidal habitat loss, EMFs from subsea electrical cabling, and colonisation of foundations, scour protection and cable protection. Overall, it is concluded that there will be negligible adverse significant cumulative effects from the Proposed Development alongside other projects/plans.
  4. As noted in section 9.9.3, an assessment of the likely significant effects in EIA terms on the relevant features of sites that comprise part of the UK National Site Network or Natura 2000 network (i.e. European Sites) has been made in this chapter (in sections 0 and 9.12), The assessment of the potential impacts on the site itself are deferred to the RIAA (SSER, 2022c) for the Proposed Development. The RIAA concluded that no adverse effect on integrity was predicted to occur on any of the sites designated for Annex I habitats below MHWS, specifically:
  • River Tay SAC;
  • River Tweed SAC;
  • Tweed Estuary SAC;
  • River Teith SAC;
  • River South Esk SAC; and
  • River Dee SAC.
    1. An assessment on the individual qualifying interest features of the sites relevant to fish and shellfish ecology has also been undertaken in this chapter.
    2. No likely significant transboundary effects have been identified in regard to effects of the Proposed Development.
    3. As noted in section 9.9.3, the full assessment of the potential impacts on the sites that comprise part of the UK National Site Network or Natura 2000 network (i.e. European Sites) has been deferred to the RIAA (SSER, 2022c) for the Proposed Development. An assessment on the individual qualifying interest feature(s) of these sites (e.g. Annex II species such as Atlantic salmon ) is considered in this chapter (section 9.11 and 9.12.3), as summarised above. The RIAA concluded that no adverse effect on integrity was predicted to occur on any of the sites designated for fish and shellfish receptors, specifically.

 

Table 9.42:
Summary of Likely Significant Environmental Effects, Mitigation and Monitoring

Table 9.42: Summary of Likely Significant Environmental Effects, Mitigation and Monitoring


Table 9.43:
Summary of Likely Significant Cumulative Environment Effects, Mitigation and Monitoring

Table 9.43: Summary of Likely Significant Cumulative Environment Effects, Mitigation and Monitoring

 

9.16. References

Agnalt, A.L., Kristiansen, T.S. and Jorstad, K.E. (2007). Growth, Reproductive Cycle and Movement of Berried European Lobsters (Homarus gammarus) in a Local Stock off Southwestern Norway. ICES Journal of Marine Sciences 64:288-297.

Aires, C., González-Irusta, J.M., Watret, R. (2014) Updating Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters. Scottish Marine and Freshwater Science Vol 5 No 10. Edinburgh: Scottish Government, 88pp. DOI: 10.7489/1555-1

Andersson, M. and Öhman, M. (2010). Fish and sessile assemblages associated with wind-turbine constructions in the Baltic Sea. Marine and Freshwater Research 61, 642-650.

Andersson, M. H. (2011). Offshore Wind Farms - Ecological Effects of Noise and Habitat Alteration on Fish. PhD Thesis, Department of Zoology, Stockholm University.

Andersson, M. H. (2011) Offshore Wind Farms - Ecological Effects of Noise and Habitat Alteration on Fish. PhD Thesis, Department of Zoology, Stockholm University.

Andersson, M. H., Berggren, B., Wilhelmsson, D., and Öhman, M. C. (2009) Epibenthic Colonization of Concrete and Steel Pilings in a Cold-Temperate Embayment: A Field Experiment. Helgoland Marine Research, 63, pp. 249–260.

Appleby, J.A. and Scarratt (1989) Physical effects of suspended solids on marine and estuarine fish and shellfish, with special reference to ocean dumping: a literature review. Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences No. 1681. October 1989.

Armstrong, J.D., D.C. Hunter, R.J. Fryer, P. Rycroft, and J.E. Orpwood. (2015) Behavioural responses of Atlantic salmon to mains frequency magnetic fields. Scottish Marine and Freshwater Science 6:9.

Atema, J. and Cobb, J. S. (1980) Social behaviour in the biology and management of lobsters 409–450.

Bergström, L., Sundqvist, F., Bergström, U. (2013) Effects of an offshore wind farm on temporal and spatial patterns in the demersal fish community. Marine Ecology Progress Series 485, 11pp.

BioConsult (2006). Hydroacoustic Monitoring of Fish Communities at Offshore Wind Farms, Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farm, Annual Report 2005.

Birklund, J. and Wijsman, J. W. M. (2005). Aggregate Extraction: A Review on the Effects on Ecological Functions. Report Z3297/10 SAWDPIT Fith Framework Project no EVK3-CT-2001-00056. Available at: https://repository.tudelft.nl/islandora/object/uuid%3A11ee2c93-2dfd-429e-acd4-a079a0fa2552 Accessed on: 18/01/2022

Bodznick, D. and Northcutt, R.G. (1981) Electroreception in Lampreys: Evidence that the Earliest Vertebrates were Electroreceptive. Science, 212, 465-467.

Bodznick, D. and Preston, D.G. (1983) Physiological Characterization of Electroreceptors in the Lampreys. Ichthyomyzon uniscuspis and Petromyzon marinus. Journal of Comparative Physiology 152, 209-217.

Bohnsack, J. A. (1989) Are High Densities of Fishes at Artificial Reefs the Result of Habitat Limitation or Behavioural Preference? B. Mar. Sci., 44(2), pp. 631-645.

Bouma, S. and Lengkeek, W. (2008) Benthic communities on hard substrates within the first Dutch offshore wind farm (OWEZ). Algae 2011.

BOWind (2008) Barrow Offshore Wind Farm Post Construction Monitoring Report. First annual report. 15 January 2008, 60pp.

BOWL (2021a) Beatrice Offshore Wind Farm Post-Construction Sandeel Survey–Technical Report

BOWL (2021b) Beatrice Offshore Wind Farm Post-Construction Cod Spawning Survey – Technical Report

Brand, A.R. & Roberts, D., (1973) The cardiac responses of the scallop Pecten maximus (L.) to respiratory stress. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 13, 29-43.

Campbell, A., and Stasko, A. B. (1985) Movements of tagged American lobster, Homarus americanus, off southwestern Nova Scotia. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 42: 229–238.

Cefas (2009) Strategic Review of Offshore Wind Farm Monitoring Data Associated with FEPA Licence Conditions. Project ME1117. July 2009.

Christian, J.R., A. Mathieu, D.H. Thomson, D. White, R.A. Buchanan (2013). Effect of Seismic Energy on Snow Crab (Chionoecetes opilio). Prepared for National Energy Board, Calgary, AB., File No. CAL-1-00364 (2003), p. 50

Chung-Davidson., Y., Bryan, M.B., Teeter, J., Bedore, C.N., and Li, W. (2008) Neuroendocrine and Behavioural Responses to Weak Electric Fields in Adult Sea Lampreys (Petromyzon marinus). Hormones and Behaviour, 54(1), 34-40.

CIEEM (2019) Guidelines for Ecological Impact Assessment in the UK and Ireland. Terrestrial, Freshwater, Coastal and Marine, September 2018, Version 1.1 – Updated September 2019.

CMACS (Centre for Marine and coastal studies). (2003) A Baseline Assessment of Electromagnetic fields Generated by Offshore Wind farm Cables. Report No. COWRIE EMF-01-2002, 66. Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies, Birkenhead, UK.

Comeau, M., and Savoie, F. (2002) Movement of American lobster (Homarus americanus) in the southwestern Gulf of St Lawrence. Fishery Bulletin US, 100: 181–192.

Coull, K.A., Johnstone, R, and Rogers, S.I. (1998) Fisheries Sensitivity Maps in British Waters. UKOOA Ltd: Aberdeen.

Cresci, A., Allan, B.J.M., Shema, S.D., Skiftesvik, A.B., Browman, H.I., (2020). Orientation behaviour and swimming speed of Atlantic herring larvae (Clupea harengus) in situ and in laboratory exposures to rotated artificial magnetic fields. J. Exp. Mar. Biol.Ecol. 526, 151358 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2020.151358.

Cresci, A., Perrichon, P., Durif, C.M., Sørhus, E., Johnsen, E., Bjelland, R., Larsen, T., Skiftesvik, A.B. and Browman, H.I., (2022). Magnetic fields generated by the DC cables of offshore wind farms have no effect on spatial distribution or swimming behaviour of lesser sandeel larvae (Ammodytes marinus). Marine Environmental Research, 176, p.105609.

CSA (2019). Evaluation of Potential EMF Effects on Fish Species of Commercial or Recreational Fishing Importance in Southern New England. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Headquarters, Sterling, VA. OCS Study BOEM 2019-049. 59 pp.

Danish Energy Agency (2013) Danish Offshore Wind. Key Environmental Issues - a Follow-up. The Environmental Group: The Danish Energy Agency, The Danish Nature Agency, DONG Energy and Vattenfall.

De Soto. A., N. Delorme, J. Atkins, S. Howard, J. Williams, M. Johnson, (2013). Anthropogenic noise causes body malformations and delays development in marine larvae. Sci. Reproduction, 3 (2013), p. 2831.

Desprez, M. (2000) Physical and biological impact of marine aggregate extraction along the French coast of the eastern English Channel: short and long-term post-dredging restoration. ICES Journal of Marine Science 57, 1428-1438.

DFO, 2004. Potential impacts of seismic energy on snow crab. DFO Can Sci Advis Sec. Habitat Status Report 2004/003, p. 2.

Edmonds, N.J., C.J. Firmin, D Goldsmith, R C. Faulkner, DT. Wood, (2016). A review of crustacean sensitivity to high amplitude underwater noise: Data needs for effective risk assessment in relation to UK commercial species. Marine Pollution Bulletin, Volume 108, Issues 1–2, 2016, Pages 5-11.

EGS (2011) Lynn and Inner Dowsing Offshore Wind Farms Post-Construction Survey Works Phase 2 – Benthic Ecology Survey Centrica Contract No. CREL/C/400012, Final Report. 184pp.

Ellis, J.R., Milligan, S.P., Readdy, L., Taylor, N. and Brown, M.J. (2012) Spawning and nursery grounds of selected fish species in UK waters. Scientific Series Technical Report. Cefas Lowestoft, 147: 56 pp

EMU (2004) Subsea Cable Decommissioning – A Limited Environmental Appraisal. Report commissioned by British Telecommunications plc, Cable and Wireless and AT&T, Report no. 04/J/01/06/0648/0415, available from UKCPC.

EMU (2008a) Barrow Offshore Wind Farm Monopile Ecological Survey. Report No 08/J/1/03/1321/0825. Report prepared on behalf of Narrow Offshore Wind Ltd. December 2008.

EMU (2008b) Kentish Flats Offshore Wind Farm Turbine Foundation Faunal Colonisation Diving Survey. Report No 08/J/1/03/1034/0839. Prepared on behalf of Kentish Flats Ltd. November 2008.

Filiciotto, F. Vazzana, M. Celi,M. Maccarrone, V. Ceraulo, M. Buffa, G. & Arizza, V. de Vincenzi, G. Rosario, G. Mazzola, S. Buscaino, G. (2016). Underwater noise from boats: Measurement of its influence on the behaviour and biochemistry of the common prawn (Palaemon serratus, Pennant 1777). Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 478. 10.1016/j.jembe.2016.01.014.

Gill, A. B. and Bartlett, M. (2010). Literature Review on the Potential Effects of Electromagnetic Fields and Subsea Noise from Marine Renewable Energy Developments on Atlantic Salmon, Sea Trout and European Eel. Scottish Natural Heritage, Commissioned Report No. 401. (Sutton and Boyd, 2009).

Gill, A. B., Gloyne-Phillips, I., Neal, K. J. and Kimber, J. A. (2005) The Potential Effects of Electromagnetic Fields Generated by Sub-Sea Power Cables Associated with Offshore Wind Farm Developments on Electrically and Magnetically Sensitive Marine Organisms – A Review. COWRIE 1.5 Electromagnetic Fields Review.

Gill, A.B. and Taylor. H. (2001) The Potential of Electromagnetic Fields Generated by Cabling between Offshore Wind Turbines upon Elasmobranch Fishes. Report for the Countryside Council for Wales (CCW Science report No. 488) 60pp.

Gill, A.B., Huang, Y., Gloyne-Philips, I., Metcalfe, J., Quayle, V., Spencer, J. and Wearmouth, V. (2009) COWRIE 2.0 Electromagnetic Fields (EMF) Phase 2: EMF-Sensitive Fish Response to EM Emissions from Sub-Sea Electricity Cables of the Type used by the Offshore Renewable Energy Industry. COWRIE-EMF-1-06.

Gardiner, R., Main, R., Kynoch, R., Gilbey, J., and Davies, I., (2018a). A needle in the haystack? Seeking salmon smolt migration routes off the Scottish east coast using surface trawling and genetic assignment. Poster presentation to the MASTS Annual Science Meeting 31 October – 2 November 2018.

Gardiner, R., Main, R., Davies, I., Kynoch, R., Gilbey, J., Adams, C., and Newton M. (2018b). Recent investigations into the marine migration of salmon smolts in the context of marine renewable development. Conference Presentation. Environmental Interactions of Marine Renewables (EIMR) Conference, Kirkwall, 24-26 April 2018.

Harding, H., Bruintjes, R., Radford, A. N., and Simpson, S. D., (2016). Measurement of Hearing in the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) using Auditory Evoked Potentials, and effects of Pile Driving Playback on salmon Behaviour and Physiology. Marine Scotland Science; Scottish Marine and Freshwater Science, 7: 46–47.Hawkins, A. (2009) The impact of pile driving upon fish. Proc. Inst. Acoustics, vol.31. pt.1, pp. 72-79.

Harsanyi, P., Scott, K., Easton, B.A., de la Cruz Ortiz, G., Chapman, E.C., Piper, A.J., Rochas, C.M. and Lyndon, A.R., (2022) The Effects of Anthropogenic Electromagnetic Fields (EMF) on the Early Development of Two Commercially Important Crustaceans, European Lobster, Homarus gammarus (L.) and Edible Crab, Cancer pagurus (L.). Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 10(5), p.564.

Hawkins, A. D. and Popper, A. N. (2016) A sound approach to assessing the impact of underwater noise on marine fishes and invertebrates. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 74 (3): 635-651.

Hawkins, A. D., Roberts L., and S. Cheesman (2014a) Responses of free-living coastal pelagic fish to impulsive sounds, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., 135, PP3101-3116

Holland, G. J., Greenstreet, S. P. R., Gibb, I. M., Fraser, H. M. and Robertson, M. R., (2005) Identifying Sandeel Ammodytes marinus Sediment Habitat Preferences in the Marine Environment. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 303, pp. 269-282.

Howell, T.R.W & Fraser, D.I., (1984) Observations on the dispersal and mortality of the scallop Pecten maximus (L.). ICES Council Meeting Papers, K: 35.

Huang, Y. (2005) Electromagnetic Simulations of 135-kV Three phase Submarine Power Cables. Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies, Ltd. Prepared for Sweden Offshore.

Hughes, S.L., Hindson, J., Berx, B., Gallego, A. and Turrell, W.R. (2018) Scottish Ocean Climate Status Report 2016. Scottish Marine and Freshwater Science Vol 9 No 4, 167pp. DOI: 10.7489/12086-1

Hume, J. (2017) A review of the geographic distribution, status and conservation of Scotland’s lampreys. The Glasgow Naturalist. Volume 26, Part 4 Available at: https://www.glasgownaturalhistory.org.uk/gn26_4/Hume_lampreys_Scotland.pdf. Accessed on: 09/01/2022

Hutchison, Z.L., P. Sigray, H. He, A.B. Gill, J. King, and C. Gibson. (2018) Electromagnetic Field (EMF) Impacts on Elasmobranch (shark, rays, and skates) and American Lobster Movement and Migration from Direct Current Cables. Sterling (VA): U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management. OCS Study BOEM 2018-003.

Hvidt, C. B., Bech, M., and Klaustrup, M. (2003) Monitoring programme-status report 2003. Fish at the cable trace. Nysted offshore wind farm at Rødsand. Bioconsult.

ICES. (2006). Herring, Clupea harengus. Available at: https://www.ices.dk/about-ICES/projects/EU-RFP/EU%20Repository/ICES%20FIshMap/ICES%20FishMap%20species%20factsheet-herring.pdf. Accessed on: 10/02/2022Inch Cape Offshore Limited (2018). Offshore Environmental Statement: Chapter 12 Benthic Ecology. Available at: tethys.pnnl.gov/sites/default/files/publications/inch2011.pdf Accessed on: 23 December 2021.

Inger, R., Attril, M.J., Bearhop, S., Broderick, A.C., Grecian, W.J., Hodgson, D.J., Mills, C., Sheehan, E., Votier, S.C., Witt, M.J., and Godley, B.J. (2009) Marine Renewable Energy: Potential Benefits to Biodiversity? An Urgent Call for Research. Journal of Applied Ecology, 46, 1145-1153.

Jensen, H., Kristensen, P.S., Hoffmann, E. (2004) Sandeels in the wind farm area at Horns Reef. Report to ELSAM, August 2004. Danish Institute for Fisheries Research, Charlottenlund.

Jensen, H., Rindorf, A., Wright, P. J., and Mosegaard, H. (2011). Inferring the location and scale of mixing between habitat areas of lesser sandeel through information from the fishery. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 68: 43–51.Jensen, H., Rindorf, A., Wright, P.J. and Mosegaard, H. (2010) Inferring the location and scale of mixing between habitat areas of lesser sandeel through information from the fishery. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 68 (1), p42.

Kavet, R., M.T. Wyman, and A.P. Klimley. (2016). Modelling magnetic fields from a dc power cable buried beneath San Francisco bay based on empirical measurements. PLoS One 11(2):e0148543.

Kempster, R.M., N.S. Hart, and S.P. Collin. (2013). Survival of the Stillest: Predator Avoidance in Shark Embryos. PLoS ONE 8(1):e52551.

Knutsen, J., Knutsen, H., Gjøsæter, J. & Jonsson, B. (2001). Food of anadromous brown trout at sea. Journal of Fish Biology. 59. 533 - 543. 10.1111/j.1095-8649.2001.tb02359.x.

Krone, R. Gutowa, L. Joschko, TJ. Schröder, A. (2013) Epifauna dynamics at an offshore foundation Implications of future wind power farming in the North Sea. Marine Environmental Research, 85, 1-12.

Lagardère J.-P. and M. Spérandio, (1981). Lagardère, Influence du niveau sonore de bruit ambiant sur la croissance de la crevett Crangon crangon. Resultats préliminaires Aquaculture, 24 (1981), pp. 77-90.

Langhamer, O., Holand, H. and Rosenqvist, G. (2016) Effects of an Offshore Wind Farm (OWF) on the common shore crab carcinus maenas: Tagging pilot experiments in the Lillgrund Offshore Wind Farm (Sweden). PLoS One 11, 1–17.

Langton R, Boulcott P, Wright PJ (2021) A verified distribution model for the lesser sandeel Ammodytes marinus. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 667:145-159. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps13693.Lee, P. H. and Weis, J. S. (1980) Effects of magnetic fields on regeneration in fiddler crabs. Biol. Bull. 159, 681–691.

Lindeboom, H.J., Kouwenhoven, H.J., Bergman, M.J.N., Bouma, S., Brasseur, S., Daan, R., Fijn, R.C. de Haan, D., Dirksen, S., van Hal, R., Hille Ris Lambers, R., ter Hofstede, R., Krijgsveld, K.L., Leopold, M. and Scheidat, M. (2011) Short-term ecological effects of an offshore wind farm in the Dutch coastal zone; a compilation. Environmental Research Letters, 6, 035101, 13pp.

Linley, E.A.S., Wilding, T.A., Black, K., Hawkins, A.J.S. and Mangi S. (2007) Review of the Reef Effects of Offshore Wind Farm Structures and their Potential for Enhancement and Mitigation. Report from PML Applications Ltd and the Scottish Association for Marine Science to the Department for Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (BERR), Contract No: RFCA/005/0029P.

Lohmann, K.J., N.D. Pentcheff, G.A. Nevitt, G.D. Stetten, R.K. Zimmer-Faust, H.E. Jarrard, and L.C. Boles. (1995). Magnetic orientation of spiny lobsters in the ocean: experiments with undersea coil systems. Journal of Experimental Biology 198:2,041-2,048.

Love, M.S., M.M. Nishimoto, S. Clark, and A.S. Bull. (2016). Renewable Energy in situ Power Cable Observation. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Pacific OCS Region, Camarillo, CA. OCS Study 2016-008. 86 pp.

Marine Scotland (2011) Scotland's Marine Atlas: Information for The National Marine Plan. Available at: https://www.gov.scot/publications/scotlands-marine-atlas-information-national-marine-plan/pages/9/ Accessed on: 13/12/2021

Marine Scotland (2019) Sandeel Surveys in the East Coast. Available at: https://blogs.gov.scot/marine-scotland/2019/12/06/sandeel-surveys-in-the-east-coast/ Accessed on: 04/02/2022Mainstream Renewable Power (2019). Neart Na Gaoithe Offshore Wind Farm Environmental Statement: Chapter 14 Benthic Ecology. Available at: marine.gov.scot/sites/default/files/chapter_14_-_benthic_ecology.pdf. Accessed on: 23 December 2021

Marine Scotland (2018). Marine Licence - Maintenance Dredging and Sea Disposal - Eyemouth Harbour - 06746. Available at: marine.gov.scot/ml/marine-licence-maintenance-dredging-and-sea-disposal-eyemouth-harbour-06746. Accessed on: 23 December 2021.

MarLIN (2021) Marine Evidence based Sensitivity Assessment (MarESA) Available at: MarLIN - The Marine Life Information Network - Marine Evidence based Sensitivity Assessment (MarESA). Accessed on: 08/01/2022

MarLIN (2022) The Marine Life Information Network - Great scallop (Pecten maximus) Available at: https://www.marlin.ac.uk/species/detail/1398 Accessed on: 17/03/2022

McCauley, R. D., Fewtrell, J., Duncan, A. J., Jenner, C., Jenner, M-N., Penrose, J. D., Prince, R. I. T., Adhitya, A., Murdoch, J. and McCabe, K. (2000) Marine Seismic Surveys – A Study of Environmental Implications. Appea Journal, pp. 692-707.

McConnell, B., Lonergan, M., Dietz, R. (2012) Interactions between seals and offshore wind farms. The Crown Estate, 41 pages. ISBN: 978-1-906410-34-6.

Messieh, S. N., D. J. Wildish, and R. H. Peterson. (1981). Possible impact from dredging and soil disposal on the Miramichi Bay herring fishery. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci., 1008: 33 p

Metcalfe, J.D., B.H. Holford, and G.P. Arnold. (1993). Orientation of plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) in the open sea – evidence for the use of external directional clues. Marine Biology 117:559-566.

Morison F, Harvey E, Franzè G and Menden-Deuer S (2019) Storm-Induced Predator-Prey Decoupling Promotes Springtime Accumulation of North Atlantic Phytoplankton. Front. Mar. Sci. 6:608. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2019.00608

Morley, E.L., G. Jones, A.N. Radford, (2013). The importance of invertebrates when considering the impacts of anthropogenic noise. Proc. R. Soc. B, 281.

Mueller-Blenkle, Christina and Mcgregor, Peter and Gill, A. B. and Andersson, Mathias and Metcalfe, J. and Bendall, Victoria and Sigray, Peter and Wood, Daniel and Thomsen, Frank. (2010). Effects of pile-driving noise on the behaviour of marine fish. Published by Cefas on behalf of COWRIE Ltd.

National Grid (2021a). Scotland to England Green Link (SEGL) ~ Eastern Link 1 Marine Scheme Scoping Report. March 2021.

National Grid (2021b). Scotland to England Green Link (SEGL) ~ Eastern Link 2 Marine Scheme Scoping Report. July 2021.

National Grid Electricity Transmission and Scottish Hydro Electric Transmission plc (2022) Eastern Green Link 2 - Marine Scheme Environmental Appraisal Report Volume 2: Chapter 8 - Benthic Ecology, Accessed on: 11 August 2022, Available at: Eastern Green Link 2 - Chapter 8: Benthic Ecology (marine.gov.scot)

National Grid Electricity Transmission and Scottish Power Transmission (2022) Scotland England Green Link 1 / Eastern Link 1 - Marine Scheme Environmental Appraisal Report Volume 2: Chapter 8 - Benthic Ecology, Accessed on: 11 August 2022, Available at: Microsoft Word - SEGL1_MS_EAR_Chapter 8 Benthic Ecology v4.0_FINAL2.docx (marine.gov.scot)

NatureScot (2020) Priority marine features in Scotlands Seas. Available at: https://www.nature.scot/doc/priority-marine-features-scotlands-seas-habitats Accessed on: 14/03/2022

NatureScot (2021) Feature Activity Sensitivity Tool (FeAST). Available at: https://www.nature.scot/professional-advice/protected-areas-and-species/protected-areas/marine-protected-areas/feature-activity-sensitivity-tool-feast Accessed on: 08/01/2022

Neal, K.J. and Wilson, E. (2008) Cancer pagurus Edible crab. In Tyler-Walters H. and Hiscock K. (eds) Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Reviews, [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. Available from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/species/detail/1179.

Nedelec, S.L., A.N. Radford, S.D. Simpson, B. Nedelec, D. Lecchini, S.C. Mills, (2014). Anthropogenic noise playback impairs embryonic development and increases mortality in a marine invertebrate Sci. Rep., 4 (2014), p. 5891.

Newell, RC. Seiderer, LJ. Hitchcock, DR. (1998) The impact of dredging works in coastal waters: A review of the sensitivity to disturbance and subsequent recovery of biological resources on the seabed. Oceanography and Marine Biology, 36, 127-178.

Newton, M., Main, R. and Adams, C. (2017). Atlantic Salmon Salmo salar smolt movements in the Cromarty and Moray Firths, Scotland. LF000005-REP-1854, March 2017.

Newton, M. Honkanen, H. Lothian, A. and Adams, C (2019) The Moray Firth Tracking Project – Marine Migrations of Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) Smolts. Proceedings of the 2019 SAMARCH Project: International Salmonid Coastal and Marine Telemetry Workshop.

Newton, M., Barry, J., Lothian, A., Main, R. A., Honkanen, H., McKelvey, S. A., Thompson, P., Davies, I., Brockie, N., Stephen, A., O'Hara Murray, R., Gardiner, R., Campbell, L., Stainer, P., & Adams, C. (2021). Counterintuitive active directional swimming behaviour by Atlantic salmon during seaward migration in the coastal zone. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 78(5), 1730–1743. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsab024

Normandeau (Normandeau Associates, Inc.), Exponent Inc., T. Tricas, T. and Gill, A. (2011) Effects of EMFs from Undersea Power Cables on Elasmobranchs and Other Marine Species. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation, and Enforcement, Pacific OCS Region, Camarillo, CA.OCS Study BOEMCSARE 2011-09. [online] Available at: http://www.gomr.boemCSAre.gov/PI/PDFImages/ESPIS/4/5115.pdf.

Orpwood, J.E., R.J. Fryer, P. Rycroft, and J.D. Armstrong. (2015) Effects of AC magnetic fields (MFs) on swimming activity in European eels Anguilla anguilla. Scottish Marine and Freshwater Science 6(8):1-22

OSPAR (2008) Assessment of the environmental impact of offshore wind-farms. Available at: https://www.ospar.org/documents?v=7114 Accessed on: 08/01/2022

Parry, G.D. and A. Gason, (2006). The effect of seismic surveys on catch rates of rock lobsters in western Victoria, Australia Fish. Res., 79, pp. 272-284.

Payne, J.F., Andrews, C.A., Fancey, L.L., Cook, A.L., Christian, J.R., (2007). Pilot study on the effects of seismic air gun noise on lobster (Homarus americanus). Canadian Technical Report of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences No.2712:V + 46.

Pearson W.H., J.R. Skalski, S.D. Skulkin, C.I. Malme, (1992). Effects of Sounds from a Geophysical Survey Device on Behaviour of Captive Rockfish (Sebastes spp.). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 49(7): 1343-1356. https://doi.org/10.1139/f92-150

Pearson W.H., J.R. Skalski, S.D. Skulkin, C.I. Malme, (1994). Effects of seismic energy releases on the survival and development of zoeal larvae of Dungeness crab (Cancer magister) Mar. Environ. Res., 38 (1994), pp. 93-113.

Petersen, JK. Malm, T. (2006) Offshore Windmill Farms: Threats to or possibilities for the marine environment. AMBIO, 35, 75-80.

Phua, C. van den Akker, S. Baretta, M. van Dalfsen, J. (2002) Ecological Effects of Sand Extraction in the North Sea. The North Sea Foundation.

Pike, C., Crook, V. & Gollock, M. (2020) Anguilla anguilla. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020: e.T60344A152845178. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-2.RLTS.T60344A152845178.en.

Popper, A. N., Hawkins, A. D., Fay, R. R., Mann, D., Bartol, S., Carlson, Th., Coombs, S., Ellison, W. T., Gentry, R., Hal vorsen, M. B., Lokkeborg, S., Rogers, P., Southall, B. L., Zeddies, D. G. and Tavolga, W. N. (2014) ASA S3/SC1.4 TR-2014 Sound Exposure Guidelines for Fishes and Sea Turtles: A Technical Report prepared by ANSI-Accredited Standards Committee S3/SC1 and registered with ANSI. Springer and ASA Press, Cham, Switzerland.

Popper, A. N., Salmon, M. and Horch, K. W. (2001) Acoustic detection and communication by decapod crustaceans. Journal of Comparative Physiology A, 187 (2): 83-89.

Rikardsen, A.H., Amundsen, P-A., Knudsen, R. Sandring, S. (2006) Seasonal marine feeding and body condition of sea trout (Salmo trutta) at its northern distribution. ICES Journal of Marine Science, Volume 63, Issue 3, 2006, Pages 466–475.

Roach, M., Cohen, M., Forster, R., Revill, A. S., and Johnson, M. (2018) The effects of temporary exclusion of activity due to wind farm construction on a lobster (Homarus gammarus) fishery suggests a potential management approach. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 75: 1416–1426.

Roberts, L., Cheesman, S., Elliott, M., and Breithaupt, T. (2016) Sensitivity of Pagurus bernhardus (L.) to substrate-borne vibration and anthropogenic noise. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 474: 185–194.

Rosaria, J. C. and Martin, E. R. Behavioural changes in freshwater crab, Barytelphusa cunicularis after exposure to low frequency electromagnetic fields. World J. Fish Mar. Sci. 2, 487–494 (2010).

RPS (2019), Review of Cable installation, protection, migration and habitat recoverability, The Crown Estate, Rev03.

Russell, D.J.F., Brasseur, S.M.J.M., Thompson, D., Hastie, G.D., Janik, V.M., Aarts, G., McClintock, B.T., Matthiopoulos, J., Moss, S.E.W. & McConnell, B. (2014) Marine mammals trace anthropogenic structures at sea. Current Biology, 24, R638–R639.

Sabatini, M. and Hill, J.M. (2008) Nephrops norvegicus Norway lobster. In Tyler-Walters H. and Hiscock K. (eds) Marine Life Information Network: Biology and Sensitivity Key Information Reviews, [on-line]. Plymouth: Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. Available from: http://www.marlin.ac.uk/species/detail/1672.

Scott, K. (2019) Understanding the biology of two commercially important crustaceans in relation to fisheries and anthropogenic impacts. (Heriot-Watt University).

Scott, K., Harsanyi, P. & Lyndon, A. R. (2018) Understanding the effects of electromagnetic field emissions from Marine Renewable Energy Devices (MREDs) on the commercially important edible crab, Cancer pagurus (L.). Mar. Pollut. Bull. 131, 580–588.

Scott, K., Piper, A.J.R. Chapman, E.C.N. & Rochas, C.M.V., (2020). Review of the effects of underwater sound, vibration and electromagnetic fields on crustaceans. Seafish Report.

Scott, K.; Harsanyi, P.; Easton, B.A.A.; Piper, A.J.R.; Rochas, C.M.V.; Lyndon, A.R. (2021) Exposure to Electromagnetic Fields (EMF) from Submarine Power Cables Can Trigger Strength-Dependent Behavioural and Physiological Responses in Edible Crab, Cancer pagurus (L.). J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2021, 9, 776. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/jmse9070776

Scrivener, J. C. (1971) Agonistic behaviour of the American lobster, Homarus americanus. (University of Victoria).

Seagreen Wind Energy (2012). Appendix G4: Detailed Worst Case Scenarios for Benthic and Intertidal Ecology. Available at: marine.gov.scot/sites/default/files/appendix_g4.pdf. Accessed on: 23 December 2021

Seagreen Wind Energy Ltd. (2021). Seagreen 1A Export Cable Corridor Environmental Impact Assessment Report, Available at: EIA_Report-Volume_1-Main_Text.pdf (marine.gov.scot), Accessed on: 9 February 2022 

Sigray, P. and Andersson, M. (2011). Particle Motion Measured at an Operation Wind Turbine in Relation to Hearing Sensitivity in Fish. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 130. 200-7.

Solan M., C. Hauton, J.A. Godbold, C.L. Wood, T.G. Leighton, P. White, (2016) Anthropogenic sources of underwater sound can modify how sediment-dwelling invertebrates mediate ecosystem properties Sci. Rep., 6 (2016), p. 20540.

SSER (2021a). Berwick Bank Wind Farm Offshore Scoping Report.

SSER (2021b). Berwick Bank Wind Farm Offshore HRA Screening Report.

SSER (2022b). Marine Protected Area Assessment Report.

SSER (2022c). Report to Inform the Appropriate Assessment.

SSER (2022e). Cambois Connection Scoping Report

Stenberg, C., Deurs, M. V., Støttrup, J., Mosegaard, H., Grome, T., Dinesen, G. E., Christensen, A., Jensen, H., Kaspersen, M., Berg, C. W., Leonhard, S. B., Skov, H., Pedersen, J., Hvidt, C. B., Klaustrup, M., Leonhard, S. B. (Ed.), Stenberg, C. (Ed.), & Støttrup, J. (Ed.) (2011) Effect of the Horns Rev 1 Offshore Wind Farm on Fish Communities, Follow-up Seven Years after Construction. DTU Aqua, DTU Aqua Report No. 246.

Svenning, M., Borgstrøm, R., Dehli, T.O,. Moen, G. Barett, R., Pedersen, T., Vader, W. (2005). The impact of marine fish predation on Atlantic salmon smolts (Salmo salar) in the Tana Estuary, North Norway, in the presence of an alternative prey, lesser sandeel (Ammodytes marinus). Fisheries Research. 00-00. 10.1016/j.fishres.2005.06.015.

Tański, A., Formicki, K., Śmietana, P., Sadowski, M. and Winnicki, A. (2005) Sheltering behaviour of spinycheek crayfish (Orconectes limosus) in the presence of an artificial magnetic field. Bull. Fr. La Pech. La Piscic. 376–377, 787–793.

Tasker & Amundin, Mats & André, Michel & T., Hawkins & W., Lang & T., Merck & A, Scholik-Schlomer & Teilmann, Jonas & Thomsen, Frank & Werner, Stefanie & Zakharia, Manell. (2010). Marine Strategy Framework Directive - Task Group 11 Report - Underwater noise and other forms of energy,

Thomas Kiørboe, Erik Frantsen, Carsten Jensen, Gorm Sørensen,(1981) Effects of suspended sediment on development and hatching of herring (Clupea harengus) eggs. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science,Volume 13, Issue 1

Thorstad, E. Todd, C. Uglem, I. Bjørn, P. Gargan, P. Vollset, K. Halttunen, E. Kålås, S. Berg,M. Finstad, B. (2016). Marine life of the sea trout. Marine Biology. 163.

Ueno, S., P. Lövsund, and P.Å. Öberg. (1986). Effect of time-varying magnetic fields on the action potential in lobster giant axon. Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing 24(5):521-526

van Deurs, M. Grome, T. M. Kaspersen, M. Jensen, H. Stenberg, C. Sørensen, T. K. Støttrup, J. Warnar, T. Mosegaar, H. (2012) Short and Long Term Effects of an Offshore Wind Farm on Three Species of Sandeel and their Sand Habitat. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 458: 169-180.

Vattenfall, A. and N. Skov-og. (2006) Danish offshore wind-Key environmental issues (No. NEI-DK-4787). DONG Energy.

Walker, M.M. (1984) Learned magnetic field discrimination in yellowfin tuna, Thunnus lbacares. Journal of Comparative Physiology A: Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral Physiology 155(5):673-679.

Westerberg, H. and I. Langenfelt. (2008) Sub-sea power cables and the migration behaviour of the European eel. Fisheries Management and Ecology 15:369-375.

Westerberg, H., Langenfelt, I., Andersson, I., Wahlberg, M., and Sparrevik, E. (2007) Inverkan på fisk och fiske av SwePol Link - Fiskundersökningar 1999-2006 (in Swedish). Swedish Fisheries Agency.

Wilhelmsson, D., Malm, T. and Ohman, M.C. (2006a) The Influence of Offshore Wind Power on Demersal Fish. ICES Journal of Marine Science 63, 775-784.

Wilhelmsson, D., Yahya, S.A.S. and Ohman, M.C. (2006b) Effects of high-relief structures on cold temperate fish assemblages: A field experiment. Marine Biology Research, 2006; 2: 136-147.

Wilhelmsson, D., Malm, T., Thompson, R., Tchou, J., Sarantakos, G., McCormick, N., Luitjens, S., Gullström, M., Patterson Edwards, J.K., Amir, O. and Dubi, A. (2010) Greening Blue Energy: Identifying and Managing the Biodiversity Risks and Opportunities of Offshore Renewable Energy. Edited by Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. 102 pp

Williams, R. A.J. Wright, E. Ashe., L.K. Blight, R. Bruintjes, R. Canessa, C.W. Clark, S. Cullis-Suskui, D.T. Dakin, C. Erbe, P.S. Hammonds, N.D. Merchant, P.D. O'Hara, J. Purser, A.N. Radford, S.D. Simpson, L. Thomas, M.A. Wale (2015). Impacts of anthropogenic noise on marine life: publication patterns, new discoveries, and future directions in research and management Ocean Coast. Manag., 115, pp. 17-24

Winter H.V., Aarts G. and Van Keeken O.A. (2010) Residence time and behaviour of sole and cod in the Offshore Wind Farm Egmond aan Zee (OWEZ) IMARES, Wageningen YR Report number: C038/10, p 50.

Woodruff, DL. Ward, JA. Schultz, IR. Cullinan, VI. Marshall, KE. (2012) Effects of Electromagnetic Fields on Fish and Invertebrates Task 2.1.3: Effects on Aquatic Organisms Fiscal Year 2011 Progress Report. US Department of Energy.

Wright, P.J., Jensen, H. & Tuck, I. (2000). The influence of sediment type on the distribution of the lesser sandeel, Ammodytes marinus. Journal of Sea Research 44: 243-256

Zhou, W., Xu, X., Tu, X. and Chen, Y. (2016) Preliminary exploration for effects of sound stimulus on the movement behavior of Litopenaeus vannamei. in 2016 IEEE/OES China Ocean Acoustics Symposium, COA 2016 4–9 (IEEE, 2016). doi:10.1109/COA.2016.7535775